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Logical Reasoning

LSAT Logical Reasoning Diagnostic Test 1 - FREE LSAT Practice Test

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1. Advertisement: Seventy-five percent of dermatologists surveyed prefer Dermactin to all other brands of skin cream. Why? We consulted dermatologists during the development of Dermactin to ensure that you have the best skin cream on the market. So if you need a skin cream, use Dermactin.
The reasoning in the advertisement is questionable because the advertisement

A) Overlooks the possibility that for some people, using no skin cream is preferable.

B) Fails to state the number of dermatologists surveyed, which leaves open the possibility that the sample of doctors is too small to be reliable.

C) Overlooks the possibility that other types of doctors have cause to use Dermactin.

D) Presumes, without providing justification, that some dermatologists are less qualified than others.

E) Relies on an inappropriate appeal to the opinions of consumers.

The advertisement's conclusion relies on a small and potentially unreliable sample size, which might not represent the larger dermatologist population.

2 / 22

2. We already knew from thorough investigation that immediately prior to the accident, either the driver of the first vehicle changed lanes without signaling or the driver of the second vehicle was driving with excessive speed. Either of these actions would make a driver liable for the resulting accident. But further evidence has proved that the first vehicle’s turn signal was not on, though the driver of that vehicle admits to having changed lanes. So the driver of the second vehicle is not liable for the accident.
Which one of the following would be most important to know in evaluating the conclusion drawn above?

A) Whether the driver of the first vehicle was a reliable witness.

B) Whether the driver of the second vehicle would have seen the turn signal flashing had it been on.

C) Whether the driver of the first vehicle knew that the turn signal was not on.

D) Whether any other vehicles were involved in the accident.

E) Whether the second vehicle was being driven at excessive speed.

Knowing if the second vehicle was driving at excessive speed would affect the evaluation of liability.

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3. Some statisticians believe that the method called extreme value theory (EVT) is a powerful analytical tool. The curves generated by traditional statistical methods to analyze empirical data on human longevity predict that some humans would live beyond 130 years. According to the curves EVT generates, however, the limit on human life spans is probably between 113 and 124 years. To date, no one has lived beyond the upper limits indicated by EVT analysis.
Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the statements above?

A) According to the findings derived through the use of EVT, it is physically impossible for any human being to live longer than 124 years.

B) EVT fits the data about the highest observed human life spans more closely than do traditional statistical methods.

C) EVT is, in general, a more reliable method for projecting future trends based on past observations than are traditional statistical methods.

D) Given the results generated by EVT, there is no point in conducting research aimed at greatly extending the upper limit on human life spans.

E) Traditional statistical methods of empirical data analysis should eventually be replaced by some version of EVT.

The statement indicates that EVT better fits the data related to maximum human life span, without necessarily being superior in all applications.

4 / 22

4. Economist: Contrary to the usual assumption, an increase in average family income is not always a sign of economic improvement. For example, in one country, an increase in the average family income coincided with a substantial increase in unemployment. What happened was that many low-income workers lost their jobs, leaving a smaller number of higher-paid workers, thereby increasing the average family income. Thus, increases in average family income should not necessarily be taken as evidence of economic improvement.
The economist’s conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?

A) Average family income is typically unaffected by rises in unemployment.

B) Low-income families were less likely than high-income families to be affected by the rise in unemployment.

C) Increases in average family income generally coincide with increases in unemployment.

D) The loss of low-income jobs did not cause an increase in the incomes of families that remained employed.

E) The rise in unemployment did not affect average family income in a positive manner.

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5. Deirdre: Many philosophers have argued that the goal of every individual is to achieve happiness—that is, the satisfaction derived from fully living up to one’s potential. They have also claimed that happiness is elusive and can be achieved only after years of sustained effort. But these philosophers have been unduly pessimistic, since they have clearly exaggerated the difficulty of being happy. Simply walking along the seashore on a sunny afternoon causes many people to experience feelings of happiness.
Which one of the following most accurately describes a reasoning flaw in Deirdre’s argument?

A) It presumes, without providing justification, that happiness is, in fact, the goal of life.

B) It makes a generalization based on the testimony of a group whose views have not been shown to be representative.

C) It dismisses a claim because of its source rather than because of its content.

D) It fails to take into account that what brings someone happiness at one moment may not bring that person happiness at another time.

E) It allows the key term 'happiness' to shift in meaning illicitly in the course of the argument.

Deirdre's argument mistakenly assumes that transient experiences of happiness are equivalent to achieving a long-term state of happiness.

6 / 22

6. Columnist: A recent research report suggests that by exercising vigorously, one significantly lowers one’s chances of developing certain cardio-respiratory illnesses. But exercise has this effect, the report concludes, only if the exercise is vigorous. Thus, one should not heed older studies purporting to show that nonstrenuous walking yields the same benefits.
The reasoning in the columnist’s argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that this argument

A) fails to consider the possibility that those who engage in vigorous physical exercise are more likely than others to perceive themselves as healthy.

B) fails to show that a certain conclusion of the recent report is better justified than an opposing conclusion reached in older studies.

C) fails to consider the possibility that the risk of developing certain cardio-respiratory illnesses can be reduced by means other than exercise.

D) overlooks the possibility that vigorous exercise may prevent life-endangering diseases that have little to do with the cardio-respiratory system.

E) fails to consider that those who exercise vigorously are at increased risk of physical injury caused by exercise.

The argument fails to establish why newer studies are more credible or reliable compared to older studies.

7 / 22

7. The number of different synthetic chemical compounds that are known to be carcinogenic but are nonetheless used as pesticides, preservatives, or food additives is tiny compared to the number of nonsynthetic carcinogenic compounds widely found in plants and animals. It is therefore absurd to suppose that the rise in the cancer rate in recent decades is due to synthetic carcinogens. The reasoning above is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it overlooks the possibility that

A) people can vary greatly in their susceptibility to cancers caused by nonsynthetic carcinogens.

B) some synthetic chemical compounds that are not known to be carcinogenic are in other respects toxic.

C) people undergo significantly less exposure to carcinogens that are not synthetic than to those that are synthetic.

D) the rise in the cancer rate in recent decades is due to something other than increased exposure to carcinogens.

E) the rise in the cancer rate in recent decades is due to increased exposure to nonsynthetic pollutants.

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8. It would not be surprising to discover that the trade routes between China and the West were opened many centuries, even millennia, earlier than 200 B.C., contrary to what is currently believed. After all, what made the Great Silk Road so attractive as a trade route linking China and the West—level terrain, easily traversable mountain passes, and desert oases—would also have made it an attractive route for the original emigrants to China from Africa and the Middle East, and this early migration began at least one million years ago.
That a migration from Africa and the Middle East to China occurred at least one million years ago figures in the above reasoning in which one of the following ways?

A) It is offered as evidence in support of the claim that trade routes between China and the West could easily have been established much earlier than is currently believed.

B) It is the main conclusion that the argument attempts to establish about intercourse between China and the West.

C) It is offered as evidence against the claim that trade routes between China and Africa preceded those eventually established between China and the Middle East.

D) It is an intermediate conclusion made plausible by the description of the terrain along which the migration supposedly took place.

E) It is cited as conclusive evidence for the claim that trade links between China and the Middle East were established long before 200 B.C.

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9. In a poll of a representative sample of a province’s residents, the provincial capital was the city most often selected as the best place to live in that province. Since the capital is also the largest of that province’s many cities, the poll shows that most residents of that province generally prefer life in large cities to life in small cities.
The argument is most vulnerable to the criticism that it

A) takes for granted that when people are polled for their preferences among cities, they tend to vote for the city that they think is the best place to live.

B) does not indicate whether most residents of other provinces also prefer life in large cities to life in small cities.

C) overlooks the possibility that the people who preferred small cities over the provincial capital did so not because of their general feelings about the sizes of cities, but because of their general feelings about capital cities.

D) overlooks the possibility that what is true of the residents of the province may not be true of other people.

E) overlooks the possibility that most people may have voted for small cities even though a large city received more votes than any other single city.

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10. Geneticist: Genes, like viruses, have a strong tendency to self-replicate; this has led some biologists to call genes “selfish.” This term is, in this instance, intended to be defined behaviorally: it describes what genes do without ascribing intentions to them. But even given that genes are ascribed no intentions, the label “selfish” as applied to genes is a misnomer. Selfishness only concerns bringing about the best conditions for oneself; creating replicas of oneself is not selfish.
Which one of the following, if assumed, allows the geneticist’s conclusion to be properly drawn?

A) Biologists have insufficient evidence about genetic behavior to determine whether it is best described as selfish.

B) Creating replicas of oneself does not help bring about the best conditions for oneself.

C) To ignore the fact that self-replication is not limited to genes is to misunderstand genetic behavior.

D) Bringing about the best conditions for oneself is less important than doing this for others.

E) The behavioral definition of “selfish” is incompatible with its everyday definition.

11 / 22

11. Industrial adviser: If two new processes under consideration are not substantially different in cost, then the less environmentally damaging process should be chosen. If, however, a company already employs an environmentally damaging process and retooling for a less damaging process would involve substantial cost, then that company should retool only if retooling is either legally required or likely to bring long-term savings substantially greater than the cost.
Which one of the following judgments conforms most closely to the principles described by the industrial adviser?

A) Two new processes are being considered for the manufacture of ball bearings. The processes are similar, except that the chemicals used in process A will pollute a nearby river slightly more than will the chemicals for process B. Process A is also slightly cheaper than process B. The company should use process A.

B) In manufacturing pincushions, a company uses a process that, though legal, has come under heavy public criticism for the environmental damage it causes. The company should change its process to preserve its public image, despite some expected long-term losses from doing so.

C) A company is considering changing its process for manufacturing shoelaces. The new process is cheaper and less environmentally damaging than the old. Both are legal. Changing processes would be costly, but the cost would be almost entirely recovered in long-term savings. The company should switch processes.

D) A company is considering two new processes for the manufacture of staples. Process A is more expensive than process B but not substantially so. However, process A is substantially less environmentally damaging than process B. The company should implement process A.

E) A new law offering companies tax credits for reducing pollution would enable a company to realize a slight long-term savings by changing to a more environmentally sound process for manufacturing dye, despite the substantial cost of retooling. In light of the new law, the company should change its process.

12 / 22

12. Psychologist: Most people have some conscious awareness of their motivations for their actions, but the influence of motives of which people are unaware is often much stronger. This has been demonstrated by social science research showing that the subconscious motives people offer as their reasons for their behavior often differ from the reasons offered by independent observers.
Which one of the following conclusions is best supported by the psychologist’s statements?

A) People’s subconscious motives for acting in a particular way are often difficult to identify even after they are made aware of these motives.

B) The motives for people’s behavior often differ depending on whether they are consciously aware of these motives.

C) People are usually not consciously aware of any of the reasons for their actions.

D) People often do not know the real reasons for their own actions.

E) Independent observers usually attribute motives to people that differ greatly from the motives people attribute to themselves.

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13. Editor: Newspapers tend to become more profitable when they increase their circulations, but they must balance this against maintaining journalistic integrity. For example, a profitable tabloid’s success is often based on sensationalist stories that are only loosely tied to actual events, while a respected newspaper’s success is often based on its reputation for being a trustworthy source. Thus, a newspaper that loses sight of its purpose in order to increase circulation is unlikely to achieve long-term profitability.
Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the editor’s argument?

A) A tabloid’s long-term success depends on how closely its stories are tied to actual events.

B) A newspaper can become less profitable when it compromises its journalistic standards to attract new readers.

C) If a tabloid is profitable, it must be because it has focused more on increasing circulation than on maintaining journalistic standards.

D) A respected newspaper’s success depends less on maintaining circulation than it does on maintaining journalistic integrity.

E) Journalistic integrity is the most important factor in determining whether a newspaper will achieve long-term profitability.

14 / 22

14. Philosopher: An action is morally good if it both achieves the agent’s intended goal and benefits someone other than the agent.
Which one of the following judgments most closely conforms to the principle cited by the philosopher?

A) Yolanda took her children to visit their grandfather because she wanted her children to enjoy their vacation and she knew they adored their grandfather. The grandfather and the children all enjoyed the visit. Though Yolanda greatly enjoyed the visit, her action was morally good.

B) Derek prepared a steak dinner to welcome his new neighbors to the neighborhood. When they arrived for dinner, Derek found out that the newcomers were strict vegetarians. Though the new neighbors were still grateful for Derek’s efforts to welcome them, Derek’s action was not morally good.

C) Ellen worked overtime hoping to get a promotion. The extra money she earned allowed her family to take a longer vacation that year, but she failed to get the promotion. Nevertheless, Ellen’s action was morally good.

D) Louisa tried to get Henry into serious trouble by making it appear that he stole some expensive clothes from a store. But the store’s detective realized what Louisa did, and so Louisa was punished rather than Henry. Since she intended to harm Henry, Louisa’s action was not morally good.

E) Colin chose to lie to the authorities questioning him, in an attempt to protect his friends. The authorities discovered his deception and punished Colin and his friends severely. But because he acted out of love for his friends, Colin’s action was morally good.

The principle states that a morally good action must both achieve the goal intended by the agent and benefit someone other than the agent.

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15. We can now dismiss the widely held suspicion that sugar consumption often exacerbates hyperactivity in children with attention deficit disorder. A scientific study of the effects of three common sugars—sucrose, fructose, and glucose—on children who have attention deficit disorder, with experimental groups each receiving a type of sugar in their diets and a control group receiving a sugar substitute instead of sugar, showed no statistically significant difference between the groups in thinking or behavior.
Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the argument above?

A) The study included some observations of each group in contexts that generally tend to make children excited and active.

B) The consumption of sugar actually has a calming effect on some children.

C) The consumption of some sugar substitutes exacerbates the symptoms of hyperactivity.

D) Some children believe that they can tell the difference between the taste of sugar and that of sugar substitutes.

E) Only one of the three types of sugar used in the study was ever widely suspected of exacerbating hyperactivity.

The argument's strength depends on all sugars being equally suspect, so showing that only one sugar is relevant weakens it.

16 / 22

16. Critic: Although filmmakers frequently profess an intention to produce original work, such claims are belied by the widespread use of generic conventions that predetermine the structures of most films. Plot structures, character types, and even themes and visual motifs, all based on formulas long popular with both filmmakers and audiences, are still in general use. To what extent can a filmmaker’s work be considered original if it follows such predetermined formulas?
Which one of the following is a principle underlying the critic’s argument?

A) Filmmakers should avoid using visual motifs that are popular among audiences.

B) If a filmmaker’s work is original, then that work does not make use of generic conventions.

C) An artistic work can be considered original only if it does not use popular themes.

D) If a filmmaker’s work makes use of formulaic structures, then that work is not original.

E) The fact that a filmmaker’s work makes use of popular structures and themes does not mean that the work is not original.

17 / 22

17. Landscape architect: If the screen between these two areas is to be a hedge, that hedge must be of either hemlocks or Leyland cypress trees. However, Leyland cypress trees cannot be grown this far north. So if the screen is to be a hedge, it will be a hemlock hedge.
In which one of the following is the pattern of reasoning most similar to that in the landscape architect’s argument?

A) If there is to be an entrance on the north side of the building, it will have to be approached by a ramp. However, a ramp would become impossibly slippery in winter, so there will be no entrance on the north side.

B) Any path along this embankment must be either concrete or stone. But a concrete path cannot be built in this location. So if there is to be a path on the embankment, it will be a stone path.

C) If visitors are to travel to this part of the site by automobile, there will be a need for parking spaces. However, no parking spaces are allowed for in the design. So if visitors are likely to come by automobile, the design will be changed.

D) The subsoil in these five acres either consists entirely of clay or consists entirely of shale. Therefore, if one test hole in the area reveals shale, it will be clear that the entire five acres has a shale subsoil.

E) A space the size of this meadow would be suitable for a playground or a picnic area. However, a playground would be noisy and a picnic area would create litter. So it will be best for the area to remain a meadow.

The reasoning pattern follows a structure where two options are presented, one is ruled out due to a limitation, and the remaining option is chosen.

18 / 22

18. It is a mistake to think, as ecologists once did, that natural selection will eventually result in organisms that will be perfectly adapted to their environments. After all, perfect adaptation of an individual to its environment is impossible, for an individual’s environment can vary tremendously; no single set of attributes could possibly prepare an organism to cope with all the conditions that it could face.
Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument?

A) Ecologists once believed that natural selection would eventually result in individuals that will be perfectly adapted to their environments.

B) Because an individual’s environment can vary tremendously, no individual can be perfectly adapted to its environment.

C) Natural selection will never result in individuals that will be perfectly adapted to their environments.

D) No single set of attributes could enable an individual organism to cope with all of the conditions that it might face.

E) It is not possible for an individual to be perfectly adapted to its environment.

19 / 22

19. The typological theory of species classification, which has few adherents today, distinguishes species solely on the basis of observable physical characteristics, such as plumage color, adult size, or dental structure. However, there are many so-called “sibling species,” which are indistinguishable on the basis of their appearance but cannot interbreed and thus, according to the mainstream biological theory of species classification, are separate species. Since the typological theory does not count sibling species as separate species, it is unacceptable.
The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that

A) the argument confuses a necessary condition for species distinction with a sufficient condition for species distinction.

B) the argument does not explain why sibling species cannot interbreed.

C) the argument, in its attempt to refute one theory of species classification, presupposes the truth of an opposing theory.

D) the argument does not evaluate all aspects of the typological theory.

E) the argument takes a single fact that is incompatible with a theory as enough to show that theory to be false.

20 / 22

20. Chiu: The belief that a person is always morally blameworthy for feeling certain emotions, such as unjustifiable anger, jealousy, or resentment, is misguided. Individuals are responsible for only what is under their control, and whether one feels such an emotion is not always under one’s control.
Chiu’s conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?

A) If a person is morally blameworthy for something, then that person is responsible for it.

B) Although a person may sometimes be unjustifiably angry, jealous, or resentful, there are occasions when these emotions are appropriate.

C) Individuals do not have control over their actions when they feel certain emotions.

D) If an emotion is under a person’s control, then that person cannot hold others responsible for it.

E) The emotions for which a person is most commonly blamed are those that are under that person’s control.

21 / 22

21. Global ecological problems reduce to the problem of balancing supply and demand. Supply is strictly confined by the earth’s limitations. Demand, however, is essentially unlimited, as there are no limits on the potential demands made by humans. The natural tendency for there to be an imbalance between demand and sustainable supply is the source of these global problems. Therefore, any solutions require reducing current human demand.
Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?

A) It is possible to determine the limitations of the earth’s sustainable supply.

B) Human consumption does not decrease the environmental supply.

C) Supply and demand tend to balance themselves in the long run.

D) Actual human demand exceeds the earth’s sustainable supply.

E) It is never possible to achieve a balance between the environmental supply and human demand.

The argument assumes that current human demand exceeds what the earth can sustainably supply, thus necessitating a reduction in demand.

22 / 22

22. Editorial: Almost every year the Smithfield River floods the coastal fishing community of Redhook, which annually spends $3 million on the cleanup.

Some residents have proposed damming the river, which would cost $5 million but would prevent the flooding. However, their position is misguided.

A dam would prevent nutrients in the river from flowing into the ocean. Fish that now feed on those nutrients would start feeding elsewhere. The loss of these fish would cost Redhook $10 million annually.
Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the editorial’s argument?

A) The Smithfield River should be dammed to prevent flooding.

B) Damming the Smithfield River is not worth the high construction costs for such a project.

C) The Smithfield River floods cost Redhook $3 million every year.

D) For Redhook to build a dam on the Smithfield River would be a mistake.

E) Nutrients from the Smithfield River are essential to the local fish population.

The editorial argues that damming the river would ultimately be a mistake due to its negative economic impact.

Your score is

The average score is 10%

Logical Reasoning

LSAT Logical Reasoning Diagnostic Test 1 - FREE LSAT Practice Test

1 / 22

1. Global ecological problems reduce to the problem of balancing supply and demand. Supply is strictly confined by the earth’s limitations. Demand, however, is essentially unlimited, as there are no limits on the potential demands made by humans. The natural tendency for there to be an imbalance between demand and sustainable supply is the source of these global problems. Therefore, any solutions require reducing current human demand.
Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?

A) Human consumption does not decrease the environmental supply.

B) It is never possible to achieve a balance between the environmental supply and human demand.

C) Supply and demand tend to balance themselves in the long run.

D) Actual human demand exceeds the earth’s sustainable supply.

E) It is possible to determine the limitations of the earth’s sustainable supply.

The argument assumes that current human demand exceeds what the earth can sustainably supply, thus necessitating a reduction in demand.

2 / 22

2. Some statisticians believe that the method called extreme value theory (EVT) is a powerful analytical tool. The curves generated by traditional statistical methods to analyze empirical data on human longevity predict that some humans would live beyond 130 years. According to the curves EVT generates, however, the limit on human life spans is probably between 113 and 124 years. To date, no one has lived beyond the upper limits indicated by EVT analysis.
Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the statements above?

A) EVT is, in general, a more reliable method for projecting future trends based on past observations than are traditional statistical methods.

B) According to the findings derived through the use of EVT, it is physically impossible for any human being to live longer than 124 years.

C) EVT fits the data about the highest observed human life spans more closely than do traditional statistical methods.

D) Given the results generated by EVT, there is no point in conducting research aimed at greatly extending the upper limit on human life spans.

E) Traditional statistical methods of empirical data analysis should eventually be replaced by some version of EVT.

The statement indicates that EVT better fits the data related to maximum human life span, without necessarily being superior in all applications.

3 / 22

3. Deirdre: Many philosophers have argued that the goal of every individual is to achieve happiness—that is, the satisfaction derived from fully living up to one’s potential. They have also claimed that happiness is elusive and can be achieved only after years of sustained effort. But these philosophers have been unduly pessimistic, since they have clearly exaggerated the difficulty of being happy. Simply walking along the seashore on a sunny afternoon causes many people to experience feelings of happiness.
Which one of the following most accurately describes a reasoning flaw in Deirdre’s argument?

A) It allows the key term 'happiness' to shift in meaning illicitly in the course of the argument.

B) It makes a generalization based on the testimony of a group whose views have not been shown to be representative.

C) It presumes, without providing justification, that happiness is, in fact, the goal of life.

D) It fails to take into account that what brings someone happiness at one moment may not bring that person happiness at another time.

E) It dismisses a claim because of its source rather than because of its content.

Deirdre's argument mistakenly assumes that transient experiences of happiness are equivalent to achieving a long-term state of happiness.

4 / 22

4. Advertisement: Seventy-five percent of dermatologists surveyed prefer Dermactin to all other brands of skin cream. Why? We consulted dermatologists during the development of Dermactin to ensure that you have the best skin cream on the market. So if you need a skin cream, use Dermactin.
The reasoning in the advertisement is questionable because the advertisement

A) Fails to state the number of dermatologists surveyed, which leaves open the possibility that the sample of doctors is too small to be reliable.

B) Presumes, without providing justification, that some dermatologists are less qualified than others.

C) Overlooks the possibility that for some people, using no skin cream is preferable.

D) Relies on an inappropriate appeal to the opinions of consumers.

E) Overlooks the possibility that other types of doctors have cause to use Dermactin.

The advertisement's conclusion relies on a small and potentially unreliable sample size, which might not represent the larger dermatologist population.

5 / 22

5. Industrial adviser: If two new processes under consideration are not substantially different in cost, then the less environmentally damaging process should be chosen. If, however, a company already employs an environmentally damaging process and retooling for a less damaging process would involve substantial cost, then that company should retool only if retooling is either legally required or likely to bring long-term savings substantially greater than the cost.
Which one of the following judgments conforms most closely to the principles described by the industrial adviser?

A) A company is considering changing its process for manufacturing shoelaces. The new process is cheaper and less environmentally damaging than the old. Both are legal. Changing processes would be costly, but the cost would be almost entirely recovered in long-term savings. The company should switch processes.

B) Two new processes are being considered for the manufacture of ball bearings. The processes are similar, except that the chemicals used in process A will pollute a nearby river slightly more than will the chemicals for process B. Process A is also slightly cheaper than process B. The company should use process A.

C) A company is considering two new processes for the manufacture of staples. Process A is more expensive than process B but not substantially so. However, process A is substantially less environmentally damaging than process B. The company should implement process A.

D) In manufacturing pincushions, a company uses a process that, though legal, has come under heavy public criticism for the environmental damage it causes. The company should change its process to preserve its public image, despite some expected long-term losses from doing so.

6 / 22

6. We can now dismiss the widely held suspicion that sugar consumption often exacerbates hyperactivity in children with attention deficit disorder. A scientific study of the effects of three common sugars—sucrose, fructose, and glucose—on children who have attention deficit disorder, with experimental groups each receiving a type of sugar in their diets and a control group receiving a sugar substitute instead of sugar, showed no statistically significant difference between the groups in thinking or behavior.
Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the argument above?

A) The consumption of some sugar substitutes exacerbates the symptoms of hyperactivity.

B) The study included some observations of each group in contexts that generally tend to make children excited and active.

C) Some children believe that they can tell the difference between the taste of sugar and that of sugar substitutes.

D) Only one of the three types of sugar used in the study was ever widely suspected of exacerbating hyperactivity.

E) The consumption of sugar actually has a calming effect on some children.

The argument's strength depends on all sugars being equally suspect, so showing that only one sugar is relevant weakens it.

7 / 22

A) some synthetic chemical compounds that are not known to be carcinogenic are in other respects toxic.

B) people can vary greatly in their susceptibility to cancers caused by nonsynthetic carcinogens.

C) the rise in the cancer rate in recent decades is due to something other than increased exposure to carcinogens.

D) the rise in the cancer rate in recent decades is due to increased exposure to nonsynthetic pollutants.

E) people undergo significantly less exposure to carcinogens that are not synthetic than to those that are synthetic.

8 / 22

8. Geneticist: Genes, like viruses, have a strong tendency to self-replicate; this has led some biologists to call genes “selfish.” This term is, in this instance, intended to be defined behaviorally: it describes what genes do without ascribing intentions to them. But even given that genes are ascribed no intentions, the label “selfish” as applied to genes is a misnomer. Selfishness only concerns bringing about the best conditions for oneself; creating replicas of oneself is not selfish.
Which one of the following, if assumed, allows the geneticist’s conclusion to be properly drawn?

A) The behavioral definition of “selfish” is incompatible with its everyday definition.

B) Bringing about the best conditions for oneself is less important than doing this for others.

C) To ignore the fact that self-replication is not limited to genes is to misunderstand genetic behavior.

D) Creating replicas of oneself does not help bring about the best conditions for oneself.

E) Biologists have insufficient evidence about genetic behavior to determine whether it is best described as selfish.

9 / 22

9. Critic: Although filmmakers frequently profess an intention to produce original work, such claims are belied by the widespread use of generic conventions that predetermine the structures of most films. Plot structures, character types, and even themes and visual motifs, all based on formulas long popular with both filmmakers and audiences, are still in general use. To what extent can a filmmaker’s work be considered original if it follows such predetermined formulas?
Which one of the following is a principle underlying the critic’s argument?

A) The fact that a filmmaker’s work makes use of popular structures and themes does not mean that the work is not original.

B) If a filmmaker’s work makes use of formulaic structures, then that work is not original.

C) An artistic work can be considered original only if it does not use popular themes.

D) If a filmmaker’s work is original, then that work does not make use of generic conventions.

E) Filmmakers should avoid using visual motifs that are popular among audiences.

10 / 22

10. In a poll of a representative sample of a province’s residents, the provincial capital was the city most often selected as the best place to live in that province. Since the capital is also the largest of that province’s many cities, the poll shows that most residents of that province generally prefer life in large cities to life in small cities.
The argument is most vulnerable to the criticism that it

A) takes for granted that when people are polled for their preferences among cities, they tend to vote for the city that they think is the best place to live.

B) overlooks the possibility that the people who preferred small cities over the provincial capital did so not because of their general feelings about the sizes of cities, but because of their general feelings about capital cities.

C) overlooks the possibility that what is true of the residents of the province may not be true of other people.

D) overlooks the possibility that most people may have voted for small cities even though a large city received more votes than any other single city.

E) does not indicate whether most residents of other provinces also prefer life in large cities to life in small cities.

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11. Economist: Contrary to the usual assumption, an increase in average family income is not always a sign of economic improvement. For example, in one country, an increase in the average family income coincided with a substantial increase in unemployment. What happened was that many low-income workers lost their jobs, leaving a smaller number of higher-paid workers, thereby increasing the average family income. Thus, increases in average family income should not necessarily be taken as evidence of economic improvement.
The economist’s conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?

A) Low-income families were less likely than high-income families to be affected by the rise in unemployment.

B) Average family income is typically unaffected by rises in unemployment.

C) The loss of low-income jobs did not cause an increase in the incomes of families that remained employed.

D) The rise in unemployment did not affect average family income in a positive manner.

E) Increases in average family income generally coincide with increases in unemployment.

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12. We already knew from thorough investigation that immediately prior to the accident, either the driver of the first vehicle changed lanes without signaling or the driver of the second vehicle was driving with excessive speed. Either of these actions would make a driver liable for the resulting accident. But further evidence has proved that the first vehicle’s turn signal was not on, though the driver of that vehicle admits to having changed lanes. So the driver of the second vehicle is not liable for the accident.
Which one of the following would be most important to know in evaluating the conclusion drawn above?

A) Whether any other vehicles were involved in the accident.

B) Whether the driver of the first vehicle knew that the turn signal was not on.

C) Whether the driver of the first vehicle was a reliable witness.

D) Whether the driver of the second vehicle would have seen the turn signal flashing had it been on.

E) Whether the second vehicle was being driven at excessive speed.

Knowing if the second vehicle was driving at excessive speed would affect the evaluation of liability.

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13. Philosopher: An action is morally good if it both achieves the agent’s intended goal and benefits someone other than the agent.
Which one of the following judgments most closely conforms to the principle cited by the philosopher?

A) Colin chose to lie to the authorities questioning him, in an attempt to protect his friends. The authorities discovered his deception and punished Colin and his friends severely. But because he acted out of love for his friends, Colin’s action was morally good.

B) Louisa tried to get Henry into serious trouble by making it appear that he stole some expensive clothes from a store. But the store’s detective realized what Louisa did, and so Louisa was punished rather than Henry. Since she intended to harm Henry, Louisa’s action was not morally good.

D) Yolanda took her children to visit their grandfather because she wanted her children to enjoy their vacation and she knew they adored their grandfather. The grandfather and the children all enjoyed the visit. Though Yolanda greatly enjoyed the visit, her action was morally good.

E) Derek prepared a steak dinner to welcome his new neighbors to the neighborhood. When they arrived for dinner, Derek found out that the newcomers were strict vegetarians. Though the new neighbors were still grateful for Derek’s efforts to welcome them, Derek’s action was not morally good.

The principle states that a morally good action must both achieve the goal intended by the agent and benefit someone other than the agent.

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14. Psychologist: Most people have some conscious awareness of their motivations for their actions, but the influence of motives of which people are unaware is often much stronger. This has been demonstrated by social science research showing that the subconscious motives people offer as their reasons for their behavior often differ from the reasons offered by independent observers.
Which one of the following conclusions is best supported by the psychologist’s statements?

A) People’s subconscious motives for acting in a particular way are often difficult to identify even after they are made aware of these motives.

B) The motives for people’s behavior often differ depending on whether they are consciously aware of these motives.

C) People are usually not consciously aware of any of the reasons for their actions.

D) People often do not know the real reasons for their own actions.

E) Independent observers usually attribute motives to people that differ greatly from the motives people attribute to themselves.

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15. Editorial: Almost every year the Smithfield River floods the coastal fishing community of Redhook, which annually spends $3 million on the cleanup.

Some residents have proposed damming the river, which would cost $5 million but would prevent the flooding. However, their position is misguided.

A) The Smithfield River floods cost Redhook $3 million every year.

B) Damming the Smithfield River is not worth the high construction costs for such a project.

C) For Redhook to build a dam on the Smithfield River would be a mistake.

D) The Smithfield River should be dammed to prevent flooding.

E) Nutrients from the Smithfield River are essential to the local fish population.

The editorial argues that damming the river would ultimately be a mistake due to its negative economic impact.

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16. It is a mistake to think, as ecologists once did, that natural selection will eventually result in organisms that will be perfectly adapted to their environments. After all, perfect adaptation of an individual to its environment is impossible, for an individual’s environment can vary tremendously; no single set of attributes could possibly prepare an organism to cope with all the conditions that it could face.
Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument?

A) No single set of attributes could enable an individual organism to cope with all of the conditions that it might face.

B) Ecologists once believed that natural selection would eventually result in individuals that will be perfectly adapted to their environments.

C) Because an individual’s environment can vary tremendously, no individual can be perfectly adapted to its environment.

D) Natural selection will never result in individuals that will be perfectly adapted to their environments.

E) It is not possible for an individual to be perfectly adapted to its environment.

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A) If visitors are to travel to this part of the site by automobile, there will be a need for parking spaces. However, no parking spaces are allowed for in the design. So if visitors are likely to come by automobile, the design will be changed.

B) If there is to be an entrance on the north side of the building, it will have to be approached by a ramp. However, a ramp would become impossibly slippery in winter, so there will be no entrance on the north side.

C) A space the size of this meadow would be suitable for a playground or a picnic area. However, a playground would be noisy and a picnic area would create litter. So it will be best for the area to remain a meadow.

E) Any path along this embankment must be either concrete or stone. But a concrete path cannot be built in this location. So if there is to be a path on the embankment, it will be a stone path.

The reasoning pattern follows a structure where two options are presented, one is ruled out due to a limitation, and the remaining option is chosen.

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18. Chiu: The belief that a person is always morally blameworthy for feeling certain emotions, such as unjustifiable anger, jealousy, or resentment, is misguided. Individuals are responsible for only what is under their control, and whether one feels such an emotion is not always under one’s control.
Chiu’s conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?

A) Individuals do not have control over their actions when they feel certain emotions.

B) If a person is morally blameworthy for something, then that person is responsible for it.

C) If an emotion is under a person’s control, then that person cannot hold others responsible for it.

D) The emotions for which a person is most commonly blamed are those that are under that person’s control.

E) Although a person may sometimes be unjustifiably angry, jealous, or resentful, there are occasions when these emotions are appropriate.

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19. Columnist: A recent research report suggests that by exercising vigorously, one significantly lowers one’s chances of developing certain cardio-respiratory illnesses. But exercise has this effect, the report concludes, only if the exercise is vigorous. Thus, one should not heed older studies purporting to show that nonstrenuous walking yields the same benefits.
The reasoning in the columnist’s argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that this argument

A) fails to consider the possibility that the risk of developing certain cardio-respiratory illnesses can be reduced by means other than exercise.

B) fails to consider the possibility that those who engage in vigorous physical exercise are more likely than others to perceive themselves as healthy.

C) overlooks the possibility that vigorous exercise may prevent life-endangering diseases that have little to do with the cardio-respiratory system.

D) fails to consider that those who exercise vigorously are at increased risk of physical injury caused by exercise.

E) fails to show that a certain conclusion of the recent report is better justified than an opposing conclusion reached in older studies.

The argument fails to establish why newer studies are more credible or reliable compared to older studies.

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20. The typological theory of species classification, which has few adherents today, distinguishes species solely on the basis of observable physical characteristics, such as plumage color, adult size, or dental structure. However, there are many so-called “sibling species,” which are indistinguishable on the basis of their appearance but cannot interbreed and thus, according to the mainstream biological theory of species classification, are separate species. Since the typological theory does not count sibling species as separate species, it is unacceptable.
The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that

A) the argument does not evaluate all aspects of the typological theory.

B) the argument, in its attempt to refute one theory of species classification, presupposes the truth of an opposing theory.

C) the argument confuses a necessary condition for species distinction with a sufficient condition for species distinction.

D) the argument takes a single fact that is incompatible with a theory as enough to show that theory to be false.

E) the argument does not explain why sibling species cannot interbreed.

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21. Editor: Newspapers tend to become more profitable when they increase their circulations, but they must balance this against maintaining journalistic integrity. For example, a profitable tabloid’s success is often based on sensationalist stories that are only loosely tied to actual events, while a respected newspaper’s success is often based on its reputation for being a trustworthy source. Thus, a newspaper that loses sight of its purpose in order to increase circulation is unlikely to achieve long-term profitability.
Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the editor’s argument?

A) Journalistic integrity is the most important factor in determining whether a newspaper will achieve long-term profitability.

B) If a tabloid is profitable, it must be because it has focused more on increasing circulation than on maintaining journalistic standards.

C) A respected newspaper’s success depends less on maintaining circulation than it does on maintaining journalistic integrity.

D) A tabloid’s long-term success depends on how closely its stories are tied to actual events.

E) A newspaper can become less profitable when it compromises its journalistic standards to attract new readers.

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22. It would not be surprising to discover that the trade routes between China and the West were opened many centuries, even millennia, earlier than 200 B.C., contrary to what is currently believed. After all, what made the Great Silk Road so attractive as a trade route linking China and the West—level terrain, easily traversable mountain passes, and desert oases—would also have made it an attractive route for the original emigrants to China from Africa and the Middle East, and this early migration began at least one million years ago.
That a migration from Africa and the Middle East to China occurred at least one million years ago figures in the above reasoning in which one of the following ways?

A) It is the main conclusion that the argument attempts to establish about intercourse between China and the West.

B) It is an intermediate conclusion made plausible by the description of the terrain along which the migration supposedly took place.

C) It is cited as conclusive evidence for the claim that trade links between China and the Middle East were established long before 200 B.C.

D) It is offered as evidence in support of the claim that trade routes between China and the West could easily have been established much earlier than is currently believed.

E) It is offered as evidence against the claim that trade routes between China and Africa preceded those eventually established between China and the Middle East.

Your score is

The average score is 10%

Uncategorized

LSAT Reading Comprehension Diagnostic Test

Directions: Each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. For some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer; that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.

The passage is only shown for the first question.

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1. The work of South African writer Ezekiel Mphahlele has confounded literary critics, especially those who feel compelled to draw a sharp distinction between autobiography and fiction. These critics point (5) to Mphahlele’s best-known works—his 1959 autobiography Down Second Avenue and his 1971 novel The Wanderers—to illustrate the problem of categorizing his work. While his autobiography traces his life from age five until the beginning of his (10) self-imposed 20-year exile at age thirty-eight, The Wanderers appears to pick up at the beginning of his exile and go on from there. Critics have variously decried the former as too fictionalized and the latter as too autobiographical, but those who focus on (15) traditional labels inevitably miss the fact that Mphahlele manipulates different prose forms purely in the service of the social message he advances. Even where critics give him a favorable reading, all too often their reviews carry a negative subtext.

(20) For example, one critic said of The Wanderers that if anger, firsthand experiences, compassion, and topicality were the sole requirements for great literature, the novel might well be one of the masterpieces of this declining part of the twentieth (25) century. And although this critic may not have meant to question the literary contribution of the novel, there are those who are outright dismissive of The Wanderers because it contains an autobiographical framework and is populated with real-world (30) characters. Mphahlele briefly defends against such charges by pointing out the importance of the fictional father-son relationship that opens and closes the novel. But his greater concern is the social vision that pervades his work, though it too is prone to (35) misunderstandings and underappreciation. Mphahlele is a humanist and an integrationist, and his writings wonderfully articulate his vision of the future; but critics often balk at this vision because Mphahlele provides no road maps for bringing such a future (40) about.

Mphahlele himself shows little interest in establishing guidelines to distinguish autobiography from fiction. Though he does refer to Down Second Avenue as an autobiography and The Wanderers as a (45) novel, he asserts that no novelist can write complete fiction or absolute fact. It is the nature of writing, at least the writing he cares about, that the details must be drawn from the writer’s experiences, and thus are in some sense fact, but conveyed in such a way as to (50) maximize the effectiveness of the social message contained in the work, and thus inevitably fiction. As he claims, the whole point of the exercise of writing has nothing to do with classification; in all forms writing is the transmission of ideas, and important

(55) ideas at that: “Whenever you write prose or poetry or drama you are writing a social criticism of one kind or another. If you don’t, you are completely irrelevant—you don’t count.”

Based on the passage, with which one of the following statements would Mphahlele be most likely to agree?

A) It is not necessary for a writer to write works to fit predetermined categories.

B) The most useful categories in literature are those that distinguish prose from poetry and poetry from drama.

C) All works of literature should articulate a vision of the future.

D) Most works of literature that resemble novels could accurately be classified as autobiographies.

E) Literary categories are worth addressing only when literary works are being unjustifiably dismissed.

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2. The passage states that Mphahlele believes which one of the following?

A) Writing should provide a guide for achieving social change.

B) Writing should have as its goal the transmission of ideas.

C) Fiction and autobiography are clearly identifiable literary forms if the work is composed properly.

D) Good writing is generally more autobiographical than fictional.

E) Writing is most effective when it minimizes the use of real people and events to embellish a story.

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3. In lines 18–25, the author uses the phrase “negative subtext” in reference to the critic’s comment to claim that

A) the critic believes that Mphahlele himself shows little interest in establishing guidelines that distinguish fact from fiction in literature

B) the comment is unfairly one-sided and gives no voice to perspectives that Mphahlele might embrace

C) the requirements for great literature mentioned in the comment are not the sole requirements, thus Mphahlele’s work is implied by the critic not to be great literature

D) the requirement of firsthand experiences mentioned in the comment is in direct contradiction to the requirements of fiction

E) the requirements for great literature mentioned in the comment are ill conceived, thus the requirements have little bearing on what great literature really is

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4. According to the passage, critics offer which one of the following reasons for their dismissal of The Wanderers?

A) It intends to deliver controversial social criticisms.

B) It does not clearly display Mphahlele’s vision.

C) It should not have been populated with real-world characters.

D) It should have been presented as an autobiography.

E) It places too much emphasis on relationships.

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5. The author quotes Mphahlele (lines 55–58) primarily in order to

A) demonstrate Mphahlele’s eloquence as a writer

B) introduce the three literary forms Mphahlele uses to write social criticism

C) further elaborate the kind of writing Mphahlele values

D) provide a common goal of writing among novelists

E) show that Mphahlele makes no distinction among prose, poetry, and drama

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6. Which one of the following aspects of Mphahlele’s work does the author of the passage appear to value most highly?

A) his commitment to communicating social messages

B) his plan for bringing about the future he envisions

C) his blending of the categories of fiction and autobiography

D) his ability to redefine established literary categories

E) his emphasis on the importance of details

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7. Which one of the following is most strongly suggested by the information in the passage?

A) For a work to be classified as a novel, it must not contain any autobiographical elements.

B) The social vision contained in a work is irrelevant to critics who feel compelled to find distinct categories in which to place literary works.

C) Mphahlele’s stance as a humanist and an integrationist derives from an outlook on writing that recognizes a sharp distinction between fiction and autobiography.

D) Critics are concerned with categorizing the works they read not as a means to judge the quality of the works but as a way of discovering tendencies within literary traditions.

E) If Mphahlele were to provide direction as to how his vision of the future might be realized, more critics might find this vision acceptable.

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8. A vigorous debate in astronomy centers on an epoch in planetary history that was first identified by analysis of rock samples obtained in lunar missions. Scientists discovered that the major craters on the (5) Moon were created by a vigorous bombardment of debris approximately four billion years ago—the so-called late heavy bombardment (LHB). Projectiles from this bombardment that affected the Moon should also have struck Earth, a likelihood with profound (10) consequences for the history of Earth since, until the LHB ended, life could not have survived here.

Various theoretical approaches have been developed to account for both the evidence gleaned from samples of Moon rock collected during lunar (15) explorations and the size and distribution of craters on the Moon. Since the sizes of LHB craters suggest they were formed by large bodies, some astronomers believe that the LHB was linked to the disintegration of an asteroid or comet orbiting the Sun. In this view,(20) a large body broke apart and peppered the inner solar system with debris. Other scientists disagree and believe that the label “LHB” is in itself a misnomer. These researchers claim that a cataclysm is not necessary to explain the LHB evidence. They claim(25) that the Moon’s evidence merely provides a view of the period concluding billions of years of a continuous, declining heavy bombardment throughout the inner solar system. According to them, the impacts from the latter part of the bombardment were (30) so intense that they obliterated evidence of earlier impacts. A third group contends that the Moon’s evidence supports the view that the LHB was a sharply defined cataclysmic cratering period, but these scientists believe that because of its relatively brief (35) duration, this cataclysm did not extend throughout the inner solar system. They hold that the LHB involved only the disintegration of a body within the Earth- Moon system, because the debris from such an event would have been swept up relatively quickly.

New support for the hypothesis that a late bombardment extended throughout the inner solar system has been found in evidence from the textural features and chemical makeup of a meteorite that has been found on Earth. It seems to be a rare example of (45) a Mars rock that made its way to Earth after being knocked from the surface of Mars. The rock has recently been experimentally dated at about four billion years old, which means that, if the rock is indeed from Mars, it was knocked from the planet at (50) about the same time that the Moon was experiencing the LHB. This tiny piece of evidence suggests that at least two planetary systems in the inner solar system experienced bombardment at the same time. However, to determine the pervasiveness of the LHB, scientists (55) will need to locate many more such rocks and perhaps obtain surface samples from other planets in the inner solar system.

Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main point of the passage?

A) The Moon’s evidence shows that the LHB was linked to a small body that disintegrated while in solar orbit and sprayed the inner solar system with debris.

B) If scientists continue to collect new clues at their current rate, the various LHB hypotheses can soon be evaluated and a clear picture will emerge.

C) New evidence has been found that favors the view that the LHB was widespread, but before competing theories of the LHB can be excluded, more evidence needs to be gathered.

D) Astronomers now believe that they may never collect enough evidence to determine the true nature of the LHB.

E) The LHB is an intense meteorite bombardment that occurred about four billion years ago and is responsible for the cratering on the Moon and perhaps on other members of the inner solar system as well.

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9. The author’s attitude toward arguments that might be based on the evidence of the rock mentioned in the passage as being from Mars (lines 44–46) can most accurately be described as

A) outright acceptance because the origins of the rock have been sufficiently corroborated

B) skepticism because it seems unlikely that a rock could somehow make its way from Mars to Earth after being dislodged

C) curiosity because many details of the rock’s interplanetary travel, its chemical analysis, and its dating analysis have not yet been published

D) caution because even if the claims concerning the rock’s origins can be proven, it is unwise to draw general conclusions without copious evidence

E) ambivalence because the theory of the rock’s migration to Earth is at once both appealing and difficult to believe

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10. The author mentions that the LHB 'should also have struck Earth' (lines 8–9) primarily to

A) provide a reason why scientists are interested in studying the LHB

B) introduce additional support for the dating of the LHB

C) question the lack of LHB evidence found on Earth

D) advocate certain scientific models for the origins of life on Earth

E) support a particular theory of the extent of the LHB

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11. The author implies that all theoretical approaches to the LHB would agree on which one of the following?

A) the approximate amount of debris involved in the LHB

B) the idea that cratering decreased significantly after the LHB

C) the approximate duration of the LHB

D) the idea that the LHB destroyed the life that existed on Earth four billion years ago

E) the origin of the debris involved in the LHB

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12. According to the passage, the third group of scientists (line 31) believes that the LHB

A) consisted of so little debris that it was absorbed quickly by the planets in the inner solar system

B) may have lasted a long time, but all its debris remained within the Earth-Moon system

C) occurred more recently than four billion years ago

D) was so brief that its extent had to be fairly localized

E) affected only the Moon

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13. Which one of the following, if true, would lend the most support to the view that the LHB was limited to Earth and the Moon?

A) An extensive survey of craters on Mars shows very little evidence for an increase in the intensity of projectiles striking Mars during the period from three billion to five billion years ago.

B) A re-analysis of Moon rocks reveals that several originated on Earth during the LHB.

C) Excavations on both Earth and the Moon yield evidence that the LHB concluded billions of years of heavy bombardment.

D) Based on further testing, scientists conclude that the rock believed to have originated on Mars actually originated on the Moon.

E) Scientists discover another meteorite on Earth that they conclude had been knocked from the surface of the Moon during the LHB.

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14. Specialists in international communications almost unanimously assert that the broadcasting in developing nations of television programs produced by industrialized countries amounts to cultural (5) imperialism: the phenomenon of one culture’s productions overwhelming another’s, to the detriment of the flourishing of the latter. This assertion assumes the automatic dominance of the imported productions and their negative effect on the domestic culture. But (10) the assertion is polemical and abstract, based on little or no research into the place held by imported programs in the economies of importing countries or in the lives of viewers. This is not to deny that dominance is sometimes a risk in relationships (15) between cultures, but rather to say that the assertion lacks empirical foundation and in some cases goes against fact. For one example, imported programs rarely threaten the economic viability of the importing country’s own television industry. For (20) another, imported programs do not uniformly attract larger audiences than domestically produced programs; viewers are not part of a passive, undifferentiated mass but are individuals with personal tastes, and most of them tend to prefer domestically (25) produced television over imported television.

The role of television in developing nations is far removed from what the specialists assert. An anthropological study of one community that deals in part with residents’ viewing habits where imported (30) programs are available cites the popularity of domestically produced serial dramas and points out that, because viewers enjoy following the dramas from day to day, television in the community can serve an analogous function to that of oral poetry, (35) which the residents often use at public gatherings as a daily journal of events of interest. An empirical approach not unlike that of anthropologists is needed if communications specialists are to understand the impact of external (40) cultural influences on the lives of people in a society. The first question they must investigate is: Given the evidence suggesting that the primary relationship of imported cultural productions to domestic ones is not dominance, then what model best represents the true (45) relationship? One possibility is that, rather than one culture’s productions dominating another’s, the domestic culture absorbs the imported productions and becomes enriched. Another is that the imported productions fuse with domestic culture only where (50) the two share common aspects, such as the use of themes, situations, or character types that are relevant and interesting to both cultures.

Communications researchers will also need to consider how to assess the position of the individual (55) viewer in their model of cultural relationships. This model must emphasize the diversity of human responses, and will require engaging with the actual experiences of viewers, taking into account the variable contexts in which productions are (60) experienced, and the complex manner in which individuals ascribe meanings to those productions.

The primary purpose of the passage is to:

A) examine similar methodological weaknesses in two different disciplines

B) discredit the evidence offered for a claim made by a particular discipline

C) determine which of two hypotheses considered by a certain discipline is correct

D) argue that a certain discipline should adopt a particular methodology

E) compare the views of two different disciplines on an issue

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15. Which one of the following most accurately describes the organization of the passage?

A) The author takes issue with an assertion, presents examples that run counter to the assertion, suggests that a particular approach be taken by the proponents of the assertion, and discusses two questions that should be addressed in the new approach.

B) The author takes issue with an assertion, introduces a new view that runs counter to the assertion, presents examples that support the new view, and gives reasons why proponents of the assertion should abandon it and adopt the new view.

C) The author takes issue with an assertion, presents examples that run counter to the assertion, introduces a new view that runs counter to the assertion, and suggests ways in which a compromise may be found between the view and the assertion.

D) The author takes issue with an assertion, suggests reasons why the assertion is supported by its proponents, introduces a new view that runs counter to the assertion, and presents examples to support the new view.

E) The author takes issue with an assertion, presents examples that run counter to the assertion, suggests a change in the approach taken by the proponents of the assertion, and discusses two ways in which the new approach will benefit the proponents.

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16. Which one of the following is the most logical continuation of the last paragraph of the passage?

A) Lacking such an emphasis, we cannot judge conclusively the degree to which cultural relationships can be described by an abstract model.

B) But even with such an emphasis, it will be the extent to which the model accurately describes the economic relationship between cultures that determines its usefulness.

C) Until they agree to do so, we can remain secure in the knowledge that communications specialists will never fully gain the scientific credibility they so passionately crave.

D) Without such an emphasis, we can be confident that the dominance view asserted by communications specialists will survive the criticisms leveled against it.

E) Unless they do so, we cannot know for certain whether the model developed describes accurately the impact of external cultural influences on the lives of people.

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17. The author most likely discusses an anthropological study in the second paragraph primarily in order to

A) provide to international communications specialists a model of cultural relationships

B) highlight the flaws in a similar study conducted by international communications specialists

C) describe to international communications specialists new ways of conducting their research

D) cite evidence that contradicts claims made by international communications specialists

E) support the claim that international communications specialists need to take the diversity of individual viewing habits into account

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18. Which one of the following can most reasonably be concluded about the television viewers who were the subject of the study discussed in the second paragraph?

A) They are likely someday to give up oral poetry in favor of watching television exclusively.

B) They watch television for some of the same reasons that they enjoy oral poetry.

C) They would likely watch more television if they did not have oral poetry.

D) They enjoy domestic television programs mainly because they have little access to imported ones.

E) They will gradually come to prefer imported television programs over domestic ones.

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19. According to the author, an empirical study of the effect of external cultural influences on the lives of people in a society must begin by identifying

A) the viewing habits and tastes of the people in the society

B) an accurate model of how imported cultural productions influence domestic ones

C) shared aspects of domestic and imported productions popular with mass audiences

D) social factors that affect how external cultural productions are given meaning by viewers

E) the role of the external cultural influences in the daily life of the people in the society

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20. Suppose a study is conducted that measures the amount of airtime allotted to imported television programming in the daily broadcasting schedules of several developing nations. Given the information in the passage, the results of that study would be most directly relevant to answering which one of the following questions?

A) How influential are the domestic television industries in these nations?

B) What model best describes the relationship between imported cultural influences and domestic culture in these nations?

C) How does the access to imported cultural productions differ among these nations?

D) What are the individual viewing habits of citizens in these nations?

E) Do imported programs attract larger audiences than domestic ones in these nations?

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21. Computers have long been utilized in the sphere of law in the form of word processors, spreadsheets, legal research systems, and practice management systems. Most exciting, however, has been the (5) prospect of using artificial intelligence techniques to create so-called legal reasoning systems—computer programs that can help to resolve legal disputes by reasoning from and applying the law. But the practical benefits of such automated reasoning (10) systems have fallen short of optimistic early predictions and have not resulted in computer systems that can independently provide expert advice about substantive law. This is not surprising in light of the difficulty in resolving problems involving the (15) meaning and applicability of rules set out in a legal text.

Early attempts at automated legal reasoning focused on the doctrinal nature of law. They viewed law as a set of rules, and the resulting computer systems (20) were engineered to make legal decisions by determining the consequences that followed when its stored set of legal rules was applied to a collection of evidentiary data. Such systems underestimated the problems of interpretation that can arise at every stage of a legal (25) argument. Examples abound of situations that are open to differing interpretations: whether a mobile home in a trailer park is a house or a motor vehicle, whether a couple can be regarded as married in the absence of a formal legal ceremony, and so on. Indeed, many notions (30) invoked in the text of a statute may be deliberately left undefined so as to allow the law to be adapted to unforeseen circumstances. But in order to be able to apply legal rules to novel situations, systems have to be equipped with a kind of comprehensive knowledge of

(35) the world that is far beyond their capabilities at present or in the foreseeable future. Proponents of legal reasoning systems now argue that accommodating reference to, and reasoning from, cases improves the chances of producing a successful (40) system. By focusing on the practice of reasoning from precedents, researchers have designed systems called case-based reasoners, which store individual example cases in their knowledge bases. In contrast to a system that models legal knowledge based on a (45) set of rules, a case-based reasoner, when given a concrete problem, manipulates the cases in its knowledge base to reach a conclusion based on a similar case. Unfortunately, in the case-based systems currently in development, the criteria for similarity (50) among cases are system dependent and fixed by the designer, so that similarity is found only by testing for the presence or absence of predefined factors. This simply postpones the apparently intractable problem of developing a system that can discover for (55) itself the factors that make cases similar in relevant ways.

Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main point of the passage?

A) Using computers can expedite legal research, facilitate the matching of a particular case to a specific legal principle, and even provide insights into possible flaws involving legal reasoning.

B) Attempts to model legal reasoning through computer programs have not been successful because of problems of interpreting legal discourse and identifying appropriate precedents.

C) Computers applying artificial intelligence techniques show promise for revolutionizing the process of legal interpretation in the relatively near future.

D) Despite signs of early promise, it is now apparent that computer programs have little value for legal professionals in their work.

E) Case-based computer systems are vastly superior to those computer systems based upon the doctrinal nature of the law.

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22. The logical relationship of lines 8–13 of the passage to lines 23–25 and 49–53 of the passage is most accurately described as

A) a general assertion that entails two more specific assertions

B) a general assertion supported by two specific observations

C) a specific observation that suggests two incompatible generalizations

D) a general assertion followed by two arguments, one of which supports and one of which refutes the general assertion

E) a theoretical assumption refuted by two specific observations

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23. In the passage as a whole, the author is primarily concerned with

A) indicating that the law has subtle nuances that are not readily dealt with by computerized legal reasoning programs

B) demonstrating that computers are approaching the point where they can apply legal precedents to current cases

C) arguing that computers can fundamentally change how the processes of legal interpretation and reasoning are conducted in the future

D) suggesting that, because the law is made by humans, computer programmers must also apply their human intuition when designing legal reasoning systems

E) defending the use of computers as essential and indispensable components of the modern legal profession

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24. The passage suggests that the author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following statements about computerized automated legal reasoning systems?

A) Progress in research on these systems has been hindered, more because not enough legal documents are accessible by computer than because theoretical problems remain unsolved.

B) These systems will most likely be used as legal research tools rather than as aids in legal analysis.

C) Developing adequate legal reasoning systems would require research breakthroughs by computer specialists.

D) These systems have met the original expectations of computer specialists but have fallen short of the needs of legal practitioners.

E) Rule systems will likely replace case-based systems over time.

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25. It can be most reasonably inferred from the passage’s discussion of requirements for developing effective automated legal reasoning systems that the author would agree with which one of the following statements?

A) Focusing on the doctrinal nature of law is the fundamental error made by developers of automated legal systems.

B) Questions of interpretation in rule-based legal reasoning systems must be settled by programming more legal rules into the systems.

C) Contemporary computers do not have the required memory capability to store enough data to be effective legal reasoning systems.

D) Legal statutes and reasoning may involve innovative applications that cannot be modeled by a fixed set of rules, cases, or criteria.

E) As professionals continue to use computers in the sphere of law they will develop the competence to use legal reasoning systems effectively.

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26. Based on the passage, which one of the following can be most reasonably inferred concerning case-based reasoners?

A) These systems are being designed to attain a much more ambitious goal than had been set for rule systems.

B) These systems can independently provide expert advice about legal rights and duties in a wide range of cases.

C) These systems are more useful than rule systems because case-based reasoners are based on a simpler view of legal reasoning.

D) Adding specific criteria for similarity among cases to existing systems would not overcome an important shortcoming of these systems.

E) The major problem in the development of these systems is how to store enough cases in their knowledge bases.

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27. Which one of the following is mentioned in the passage as an important characteristic of many statutes that frustrates the application of computerized legal reasoning systems?

A) unavailability of relevant precedents

B) overly narrow intent

C) complexity of syntax

D) incompatibility with previous statutes

E) intentional vagueness and adaptability

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28. The examples of situations that are open to differing interpretations (lines 25–30) function in the passage to

A) substantiate the usefulness of computers in the sphere of law

B) isolate issues that computer systems are in principle incapable of handling

C) explain how legal rules have been adapted to novel situations

D) question the value of reasoning from precedents in interpreting legal rules

E) illustrate a vulnerability of rule systems in computerized legal reasoning

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What is the LSAT?

The Law School Admission Test (LSAT) is a standardized exam required for admission to most law schools in the United States and Canada. It is designed to assess key skills necessary for success in law school, such as logical reasoning, critical thinking, reading comprehension, and analytical problem-solving.

The exam consists of several sections:

Logical Reasoning: Tests your ability to evaluate, analyze, and complete arguments through complex reasoning questions.
Analytical Reasoning (Logic Games – Discontinued): Assesses your capacity to understand and structure relationships between various concepts and solve logic-based puzzles.
Reading Comprehension: Measures your proficiency in understanding dense, complex texts that mimic the types of readings common in law school.
Writing Sample: An unscored section that requires you to present a coherent argument in response to a given prompt, showcasing your ability to construct a persuasive essay.

The LSAT serves as a crucial component of the law school application process and is often considered a predictor of first-year success in law school. For students aiming to enter a competitive legal program, excelling on the LSAT is an essential step toward achieving their goals.

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Logical Reasoning

LSAT Logical Reasoning Diagnostic Test 1 - FREE LSAT Practice Test

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1. Philosopher: An action is morally good if it both achieves the agent’s intended goal and benefits someone other than the agent.
Which one of the following judgments most closely conforms to the principle cited by the philosopher?

E) Yolanda took her children to visit their grandfather because she wanted her children to enjoy their vacation and she knew they adored their grandfather. The grandfather and the children all enjoyed the visit. Though Yolanda greatly enjoyed the visit, her action was morally good.

The principle states that a morally good action must both achieve the goal intended by the agent and benefit someone other than the agent.

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2. Global ecological problems reduce to the problem of balancing supply and demand. Supply is strictly confined by the earth’s limitations. Demand, however, is essentially unlimited, as there are no limits on the potential demands made by humans. The natural tendency for there to be an imbalance between demand and sustainable supply is the source of these global problems. Therefore, any solutions require reducing current human demand.
Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?

A) Human consumption does not decrease the environmental supply.

B) Actual human demand exceeds the earth’s sustainable supply.

C) Supply and demand tend to balance themselves in the long run.

D) It is possible to determine the limitations of the earth’s sustainable supply.

E) It is never possible to achieve a balance between the environmental supply and human demand.

The argument assumes that current human demand exceeds what the earth can sustainably supply, thus necessitating a reduction in demand.

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3. It is a mistake to think, as ecologists once did, that natural selection will eventually result in organisms that will be perfectly adapted to their environments. After all, perfect adaptation of an individual to its environment is impossible, for an individual’s environment can vary tremendously; no single set of attributes could possibly prepare an organism to cope with all the conditions that it could face.
Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument?

A) No single set of attributes could enable an individual organism to cope with all of the conditions that it might face.

B) It is not possible for an individual to be perfectly adapted to its environment.

C) Because an individual’s environment can vary tremendously, no individual can be perfectly adapted to its environment.

D) Natural selection will never result in individuals that will be perfectly adapted to their environments.

E) Ecologists once believed that natural selection would eventually result in individuals that will be perfectly adapted to their environments.

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4. It would not be surprising to discover that the trade routes between China and the West were opened many centuries, even millennia, earlier than 200 B.C., contrary to what is currently believed. After all, what made the Great Silk Road so attractive as a trade route linking China and the West—level terrain, easily traversable mountain passes, and desert oases—would also have made it an attractive route for the original emigrants to China from Africa and the Middle East, and this early migration began at least one million years ago.
That a migration from Africa and the Middle East to China occurred at least one million years ago figures in the above reasoning in which one of the following ways?

A) It is offered as evidence in support of the claim that trade routes between China and the West could easily have been established much earlier than is currently believed.

B) It is an intermediate conclusion made plausible by the description of the terrain along which the migration supposedly took place.

C) It is cited as conclusive evidence for the claim that trade links between China and the Middle East were established long before 200 B.C.

D) It is the main conclusion that the argument attempts to establish about intercourse between China and the West.

E) It is offered as evidence against the claim that trade routes between China and Africa preceded those eventually established between China and the Middle East.

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5. Psychologist: Most people have some conscious awareness of their motivations for their actions, but the influence of motives of which people are unaware is often much stronger. This has been demonstrated by social science research showing that the subconscious motives people offer as their reasons for their behavior often differ from the reasons offered by independent observers.
Which one of the following conclusions is best supported by the psychologist’s statements?

A) The motives for people’s behavior often differ depending on whether they are consciously aware of these motives.

B) People often do not know the real reasons for their own actions.

C) People are usually not consciously aware of any of the reasons for their actions.

D) Independent observers usually attribute motives to people that differ greatly from the motives people attribute to themselves.

E) People’s subconscious motives for acting in a particular way are often difficult to identify even after they are made aware of these motives.

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6. Advertisement: Seventy-five percent of dermatologists surveyed prefer Dermactin to all other brands of skin cream. Why? We consulted dermatologists during the development of Dermactin to ensure that you have the best skin cream on the market. So if you need a skin cream, use Dermactin.
The reasoning in the advertisement is questionable because the advertisement

A) Presumes, without providing justification, that some dermatologists are less qualified than others.

B) Overlooks the possibility that other types of doctors have cause to use Dermactin.

C) Fails to state the number of dermatologists surveyed, which leaves open the possibility that the sample of doctors is too small to be reliable.

D) Overlooks the possibility that for some people, using no skin cream is preferable.

E) Relies on an inappropriate appeal to the opinions of consumers.

The advertisement's conclusion relies on a small and potentially unreliable sample size, which might not represent the larger dermatologist population.

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7. Geneticist: Genes, like viruses, have a strong tendency to self-replicate; this has led some biologists to call genes “selfish.” This term is, in this instance, intended to be defined behaviorally: it describes what genes do without ascribing intentions to them. But even given that genes are ascribed no intentions, the label “selfish” as applied to genes is a misnomer. Selfishness only concerns bringing about the best conditions for oneself; creating replicas of oneself is not selfish.
Which one of the following, if assumed, allows the geneticist’s conclusion to be properly drawn?

A) To ignore the fact that self-replication is not limited to genes is to misunderstand genetic behavior.

B) Bringing about the best conditions for oneself is less important than doing this for others.

C) Biologists have insufficient evidence about genetic behavior to determine whether it is best described as selfish.

D) Creating replicas of oneself does not help bring about the best conditions for oneself.

E) The behavioral definition of “selfish” is incompatible with its everyday definition.

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8. Chiu: The belief that a person is always morally blameworthy for feeling certain emotions, such as unjustifiable anger, jealousy, or resentment, is misguided. Individuals are responsible for only what is under their control, and whether one feels such an emotion is not always under one’s control.
Chiu’s conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?

A) If a person is morally blameworthy for something, then that person is responsible for it.

B) Individuals do not have control over their actions when they feel certain emotions.

C) Although a person may sometimes be unjustifiably angry, jealous, or resentful, there are occasions when these emotions are appropriate.

D) The emotions for which a person is most commonly blamed are those that are under that person’s control.

E) If an emotion is under a person’s control, then that person cannot hold others responsible for it.

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9. Editorial: Almost every year the Smithfield River floods the coastal fishing community of Redhook, which annually spends $3 million on the cleanup.

Some residents have proposed damming the river, which would cost $5 million but would prevent the flooding. However, their position is misguided.

A) The Smithfield River floods cost Redhook $3 million every year.

B) For Redhook to build a dam on the Smithfield River would be a mistake.

C) Nutrients from the Smithfield River are essential to the local fish population.

D) Damming the Smithfield River is not worth the high construction costs for such a project.

E) The Smithfield River should be dammed to prevent flooding.

The editorial argues that damming the river would ultimately be a mistake due to its negative economic impact.

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10. Columnist: A recent research report suggests that by exercising vigorously, one significantly lowers one’s chances of developing certain cardio-respiratory illnesses. But exercise has this effect, the report concludes, only if the exercise is vigorous. Thus, one should not heed older studies purporting to show that nonstrenuous walking yields the same benefits.
The reasoning in the columnist’s argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that this argument

A) overlooks the possibility that vigorous exercise may prevent life-endangering diseases that have little to do with the cardio-respiratory system.

B) fails to consider the possibility that those who engage in vigorous physical exercise are more likely than others to perceive themselves as healthy.

C) fails to consider the possibility that the risk of developing certain cardio-respiratory illnesses can be reduced by means other than exercise.

D) fails to consider that those who exercise vigorously are at increased risk of physical injury caused by exercise.

E) fails to show that a certain conclusion of the recent report is better justified than an opposing conclusion reached in older studies.

The argument fails to establish why newer studies are more credible or reliable compared to older studies.

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11. In a poll of a representative sample of a province’s residents, the provincial capital was the city most often selected as the best place to live in that province. Since the capital is also the largest of that province’s many cities, the poll shows that most residents of that province generally prefer life in large cities to life in small cities.
The argument is most vulnerable to the criticism that it

A) overlooks the possibility that what is true of the residents of the province may not be true of other people.

C) does not indicate whether most residents of other provinces also prefer life in large cities to life in small cities.

D) takes for granted that when people are polled for their preferences among cities, they tend to vote for the city that they think is the best place to live.

E) overlooks the possibility that most people may have voted for small cities even though a large city received more votes than any other single city.

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12. Critic: Although filmmakers frequently profess an intention to produce original work, such claims are belied by the widespread use of generic conventions that predetermine the structures of most films. Plot structures, character types, and even themes and visual motifs, all based on formulas long popular with both filmmakers and audiences, are still in general use. To what extent can a filmmaker’s work be considered original if it follows such predetermined formulas?
Which one of the following is a principle underlying the critic’s argument?

A) Filmmakers should avoid using visual motifs that are popular among audiences.

B) If a filmmaker’s work makes use of formulaic structures, then that work is not original.

C) An artistic work can be considered original only if it does not use popular themes.

D) If a filmmaker’s work is original, then that work does not make use of generic conventions.

E) The fact that a filmmaker’s work makes use of popular structures and themes does not mean that the work is not original.

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13. Industrial adviser: If two new processes under consideration are not substantially different in cost, then the less environmentally damaging process should be chosen. If, however, a company already employs an environmentally damaging process and retooling for a less damaging process would involve substantial cost, then that company should retool only if retooling is either legally required or likely to bring long-term savings substantially greater than the cost.
Which one of the following judgments conforms most closely to the principles described by the industrial adviser?

A) A new law offering companies tax credits for reducing pollution would enable a company to realize a slight long-term savings by changing to a more environmentally sound process for manufacturing dye, despite the substantial cost of retooling. In light of the new law, the company should change its process.

C) In manufacturing pincushions, a company uses a process that, though legal, has come under heavy public criticism for the environmental damage it causes. The company should change its process to preserve its public image, despite some expected long-term losses from doing so.

D) A company is considering changing its process for manufacturing shoelaces. The new process is cheaper and less environmentally damaging than the old. Both are legal. Changing processes would be costly, but the cost would be almost entirely recovered in long-term savings. The company should switch processes.

E) A company is considering two new processes for the manufacture of staples. Process A is more expensive than process B but not substantially so. However, process A is substantially less environmentally damaging than process B. The company should implement process A.

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14. Economist: Contrary to the usual assumption, an increase in average family income is not always a sign of economic improvement. For example, in one country, an increase in the average family income coincided with a substantial increase in unemployment. What happened was that many low-income workers lost their jobs, leaving a smaller number of higher-paid workers, thereby increasing the average family income. Thus, increases in average family income should not necessarily be taken as evidence of economic improvement.
The economist’s conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?

A) Increases in average family income generally coincide with increases in unemployment.

B) Average family income is typically unaffected by rises in unemployment.

C) Low-income families were less likely than high-income families to be affected by the rise in unemployment.

D) The rise in unemployment did not affect average family income in a positive manner.

E) The loss of low-income jobs did not cause an increase in the incomes of families that remained employed.

15 / 22

A) The consumption of sugar actually has a calming effect on some children.

B) Only one of the three types of sugar used in the study was ever widely suspected of exacerbating hyperactivity.

C) Some children believe that they can tell the difference between the taste of sugar and that of sugar substitutes.

D) The study included some observations of each group in contexts that generally tend to make children excited and active.

E) The consumption of some sugar substitutes exacerbates the symptoms of hyperactivity.

The argument's strength depends on all sugars being equally suspect, so showing that only one sugar is relevant weakens it.

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16. Landscape architect: If the screen between these two areas is to be a hedge, that hedge must be of either hemlocks or Leyland cypress trees. However, Leyland cypress trees cannot be grown this far north. So if the screen is to be a hedge, it will be a hemlock hedge.
In which one of the following is the pattern of reasoning most similar to that in the landscape architect’s argument?

A) A space the size of this meadow would be suitable for a playground or a picnic area. However, a playground would be noisy and a picnic area would create litter. So it will be best for the area to remain a meadow.

B) Any path along this embankment must be either concrete or stone. But a concrete path cannot be built in this location. So if there is to be a path on the embankment, it will be a stone path.

C) The subsoil in these five acres either consists entirely of clay or consists entirely of shale. Therefore, if one test hole in the area reveals shale, it will be clear that the entire five acres has a shale subsoil.

D) If there is to be an entrance on the north side of the building, it will have to be approached by a ramp. However, a ramp would become impossibly slippery in winter, so there will be no entrance on the north side.

E) If visitors are to travel to this part of the site by automobile, there will be a need for parking spaces. However, no parking spaces are allowed for in the design. So if visitors are likely to come by automobile, the design will be changed.

The reasoning pattern follows a structure where two options are presented, one is ruled out due to a limitation, and the remaining option is chosen.

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17. Editor: Newspapers tend to become more profitable when they increase their circulations, but they must balance this against maintaining journalistic integrity. For example, a profitable tabloid’s success is often based on sensationalist stories that are only loosely tied to actual events, while a respected newspaper’s success is often based on its reputation for being a trustworthy source. Thus, a newspaper that loses sight of its purpose in order to increase circulation is unlikely to achieve long-term profitability.
Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the editor’s argument?

A) A newspaper can become less profitable when it compromises its journalistic standards to attract new readers.

B) Journalistic integrity is the most important factor in determining whether a newspaper will achieve long-term profitability.

C) If a tabloid is profitable, it must be because it has focused more on increasing circulation than on maintaining journalistic standards.

D) A respected newspaper’s success depends less on maintaining circulation than it does on maintaining journalistic integrity.

E) A tabloid’s long-term success depends on how closely its stories are tied to actual events.

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18. Some statisticians believe that the method called extreme value theory (EVT) is a powerful analytical tool. The curves generated by traditional statistical methods to analyze empirical data on human longevity predict that some humans would live beyond 130 years. According to the curves EVT generates, however, the limit on human life spans is probably between 113 and 124 years. To date, no one has lived beyond the upper limits indicated by EVT analysis.
Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the statements above?

A) Traditional statistical methods of empirical data analysis should eventually be replaced by some version of EVT.

B) EVT is, in general, a more reliable method for projecting future trends based on past observations than are traditional statistical methods.

C) According to the findings derived through the use of EVT, it is physically impossible for any human being to live longer than 124 years.

D) Given the results generated by EVT, there is no point in conducting research aimed at greatly extending the upper limit on human life spans.

E) EVT fits the data about the highest observed human life spans more closely than do traditional statistical methods.

The statement indicates that EVT better fits the data related to maximum human life span, without necessarily being superior in all applications.

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19. Deirdre: Many philosophers have argued that the goal of every individual is to achieve happiness—that is, the satisfaction derived from fully living up to one’s potential. They have also claimed that happiness is elusive and can be achieved only after years of sustained effort. But these philosophers have been unduly pessimistic, since they have clearly exaggerated the difficulty of being happy. Simply walking along the seashore on a sunny afternoon causes many people to experience feelings of happiness.
Which one of the following most accurately describes a reasoning flaw in Deirdre’s argument?

A) It fails to take into account that what brings someone happiness at one moment may not bring that person happiness at another time.

B) It makes a generalization based on the testimony of a group whose views have not been shown to be representative.

C) It dismisses a claim because of its source rather than because of its content.

D) It presumes, without providing justification, that happiness is, in fact, the goal of life.

E) It allows the key term 'happiness' to shift in meaning illicitly in the course of the argument.

Deirdre's argument mistakenly assumes that transient experiences of happiness are equivalent to achieving a long-term state of happiness.

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A) the argument does not explain why sibling species cannot interbreed.

B) the argument does not evaluate all aspects of the typological theory.

C) the argument takes a single fact that is incompatible with a theory as enough to show that theory to be false.

D) the argument, in its attempt to refute one theory of species classification, presupposes the truth of an opposing theory.

E) the argument confuses a necessary condition for species distinction with a sufficient condition for species distinction.

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21. The number of different synthetic chemical compounds that are known to be carcinogenic but are nonetheless used as pesticides, preservatives, or food additives is tiny compared to the number of nonsynthetic carcinogenic compounds widely found in plants and animals. It is therefore absurd to suppose that the rise in the cancer rate in recent decades is due to synthetic carcinogens. The reasoning above is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it overlooks the possibility that

A) some synthetic chemical compounds that are not known to be carcinogenic are in other respects toxic.

B) the rise in the cancer rate in recent decades is due to increased exposure to nonsynthetic pollutants.

C) people undergo significantly less exposure to carcinogens that are not synthetic than to those that are synthetic.

D) people can vary greatly in their susceptibility to cancers caused by nonsynthetic carcinogens.

E) the rise in the cancer rate in recent decades is due to something other than increased exposure to carcinogens.

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22. We already knew from thorough investigation that immediately prior to the accident, either the driver of the first vehicle changed lanes without signaling or the driver of the second vehicle was driving with excessive speed. Either of these actions would make a driver liable for the resulting accident. But further evidence has proved that the first vehicle’s turn signal was not on, though the driver of that vehicle admits to having changed lanes. So the driver of the second vehicle is not liable for the accident.
Which one of the following would be most important to know in evaluating the conclusion drawn above?

A) Whether the driver of the second vehicle would have seen the turn signal flashing had it been on.

B) Whether any other vehicles were involved in the accident.

C) Whether the driver of the first vehicle knew that the turn signal was not on.

D) Whether the driver of the first vehicle was a reliable witness.

E) Whether the second vehicle was being driven at excessive speed.

Knowing if the second vehicle was driving at excessive speed would affect the evaluation of liability.

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The LSAT is composed of multiple sections: Logical Reasoning, Analytical Reasoning (often referred to as Logic Games), and Reading Comprehension, along with an unscored Writing Sample. The exam is delivered digitally and must be taken at designated test centers or via the LSAT’s online, remotely proctored format.

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Logical Reasoning

LSAT Logical Reasoning Diagnostic Test 1 - FREE LSAT Practice Test

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1. Critic: Although filmmakers frequently profess an intention to produce original work, such claims are belied by the widespread use of generic conventions that predetermine the structures of most films. Plot structures, character types, and even themes and visual motifs, all based on formulas long popular with both filmmakers and audiences, are still in general use. To what extent can a filmmaker’s work be considered original if it follows such predetermined formulas?
Which one of the following is a principle underlying the critic’s argument?

A) If a filmmaker’s work makes use of formulaic structures, then that work is not original.

B) Filmmakers should avoid using visual motifs that are popular among audiences.

C) If a filmmaker’s work is original, then that work does not make use of generic conventions.

D) The fact that a filmmaker’s work makes use of popular structures and themes does not mean that the work is not original.

E) An artistic work can be considered original only if it does not use popular themes.

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2. It would not be surprising to discover that the trade routes between China and the West were opened many centuries, even millennia, earlier than 200 B.C., contrary to what is currently believed. After all, what made the Great Silk Road so attractive as a trade route linking China and the West—level terrain, easily traversable mountain passes, and desert oases—would also have made it an attractive route for the original emigrants to China from Africa and the Middle East, and this early migration began at least one million years ago.
That a migration from Africa and the Middle East to China occurred at least one million years ago figures in the above reasoning in which one of the following ways?

A) It is the main conclusion that the argument attempts to establish about intercourse between China and the West.

B) It is offered as evidence in support of the claim that trade routes between China and the West could easily have been established much earlier than is currently believed.

C) It is offered as evidence against the claim that trade routes between China and Africa preceded those eventually established between China and the Middle East.

D) It is an intermediate conclusion made plausible by the description of the terrain along which the migration supposedly took place.

E) It is cited as conclusive evidence for the claim that trade links between China and the Middle East were established long before 200 B.C.

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3. The typological theory of species classification, which has few adherents today, distinguishes species solely on the basis of observable physical characteristics, such as plumage color, adult size, or dental structure. However, there are many so-called “sibling species,” which are indistinguishable on the basis of their appearance but cannot interbreed and thus, according to the mainstream biological theory of species classification, are separate species. Since the typological theory does not count sibling species as separate species, it is unacceptable.
The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that

A) the argument takes a single fact that is incompatible with a theory as enough to show that theory to be false.

B) the argument does not explain why sibling species cannot interbreed.

C) the argument does not evaluate all aspects of the typological theory.

D) the argument confuses a necessary condition for species distinction with a sufficient condition for species distinction.

E) the argument, in its attempt to refute one theory of species classification, presupposes the truth of an opposing theory.

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4. The number of different synthetic chemical compounds that are known to be carcinogenic but are nonetheless used as pesticides, preservatives, or food additives is tiny compared to the number of nonsynthetic carcinogenic compounds widely found in plants and animals. It is therefore absurd to suppose that the rise in the cancer rate in recent decades is due to synthetic carcinogens. The reasoning above is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it overlooks the possibility that

A) people undergo significantly less exposure to carcinogens that are not synthetic than to those that are synthetic.

B) the rise in the cancer rate in recent decades is due to something other than increased exposure to carcinogens.

C) people can vary greatly in their susceptibility to cancers caused by nonsynthetic carcinogens.

D) some synthetic chemical compounds that are not known to be carcinogenic are in other respects toxic.

E) the rise in the cancer rate in recent decades is due to increased exposure to nonsynthetic pollutants.

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A) People are usually not consciously aware of any of the reasons for their actions.

B) People’s subconscious motives for acting in a particular way are often difficult to identify even after they are made aware of these motives.

C) Independent observers usually attribute motives to people that differ greatly from the motives people attribute to themselves.

D) People often do not know the real reasons for their own actions.

E) The motives for people’s behavior often differ depending on whether they are consciously aware of these motives.

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A) fails to show that a certain conclusion of the recent report is better justified than an opposing conclusion reached in older studies.

B) fails to consider that those who exercise vigorously are at increased risk of physical injury caused by exercise.

C) overlooks the possibility that vigorous exercise may prevent life-endangering diseases that have little to do with the cardio-respiratory system.

D) fails to consider the possibility that those who engage in vigorous physical exercise are more likely than others to perceive themselves as healthy.

E) fails to consider the possibility that the risk of developing certain cardio-respiratory illnesses can be reduced by means other than exercise.

The argument fails to establish why newer studies are more credible or reliable compared to older studies.

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7. Deirdre: Many philosophers have argued that the goal of every individual is to achieve happiness—that is, the satisfaction derived from fully living up to one’s potential. They have also claimed that happiness is elusive and can be achieved only after years of sustained effort. But these philosophers have been unduly pessimistic, since they have clearly exaggerated the difficulty of being happy. Simply walking along the seashore on a sunny afternoon causes many people to experience feelings of happiness.
Which one of the following most accurately describes a reasoning flaw in Deirdre’s argument?

A) It fails to take into account that what brings someone happiness at one moment may not bring that person happiness at another time.

B) It presumes, without providing justification, that happiness is, in fact, the goal of life.

C) It dismisses a claim because of its source rather than because of its content.

D) It allows the key term 'happiness' to shift in meaning illicitly in the course of the argument.

E) It makes a generalization based on the testimony of a group whose views have not been shown to be representative.

Deirdre's argument mistakenly assumes that transient experiences of happiness are equivalent to achieving a long-term state of happiness.

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8. In a poll of a representative sample of a province’s residents, the provincial capital was the city most often selected as the best place to live in that province. Since the capital is also the largest of that province’s many cities, the poll shows that most residents of that province generally prefer life in large cities to life in small cities.
The argument is most vulnerable to the criticism that it

A) does not indicate whether most residents of other provinces also prefer life in large cities to life in small cities.

B) takes for granted that when people are polled for their preferences among cities, they tend to vote for the city that they think is the best place to live.

D) overlooks the possibility that what is true of the residents of the province may not be true of other people.

E) overlooks the possibility that most people may have voted for small cities even though a large city received more votes than any other single city.

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9. Landscape architect: If the screen between these two areas is to be a hedge, that hedge must be of either hemlocks or Leyland cypress trees. However, Leyland cypress trees cannot be grown this far north. So if the screen is to be a hedge, it will be a hemlock hedge.
In which one of the following is the pattern of reasoning most similar to that in the landscape architect’s argument?

C) Any path along this embankment must be either concrete or stone. But a concrete path cannot be built in this location. So if there is to be a path on the embankment, it will be a stone path.

The reasoning pattern follows a structure where two options are presented, one is ruled out due to a limitation, and the remaining option is chosen.

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10. Global ecological problems reduce to the problem of balancing supply and demand. Supply is strictly confined by the earth’s limitations. Demand, however, is essentially unlimited, as there are no limits on the potential demands made by humans. The natural tendency for there to be an imbalance between demand and sustainable supply is the source of these global problems. Therefore, any solutions require reducing current human demand.
Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?

A) Supply and demand tend to balance themselves in the long run.

B) It is possible to determine the limitations of the earth’s sustainable supply.

C) Human consumption does not decrease the environmental supply.

D) It is never possible to achieve a balance between the environmental supply and human demand.

E) Actual human demand exceeds the earth’s sustainable supply.

The argument assumes that current human demand exceeds what the earth can sustainably supply, thus necessitating a reduction in demand.

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11. Editor: Newspapers tend to become more profitable when they increase their circulations, but they must balance this against maintaining journalistic integrity. For example, a profitable tabloid’s success is often based on sensationalist stories that are only loosely tied to actual events, while a respected newspaper’s success is often based on its reputation for being a trustworthy source. Thus, a newspaper that loses sight of its purpose in order to increase circulation is unlikely to achieve long-term profitability.
Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the editor’s argument?

A) A newspaper can become less profitable when it compromises its journalistic standards to attract new readers.

B) A tabloid’s long-term success depends on how closely its stories are tied to actual events.

C) If a tabloid is profitable, it must be because it has focused more on increasing circulation than on maintaining journalistic standards.

D) Journalistic integrity is the most important factor in determining whether a newspaper will achieve long-term profitability.

E) A respected newspaper’s success depends less on maintaining circulation than it does on maintaining journalistic integrity.

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12. It is a mistake to think, as ecologists once did, that natural selection will eventually result in organisms that will be perfectly adapted to their environments. After all, perfect adaptation of an individual to its environment is impossible, for an individual’s environment can vary tremendously; no single set of attributes could possibly prepare an organism to cope with all the conditions that it could face.
Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument?

A) Because an individual’s environment can vary tremendously, no individual can be perfectly adapted to its environment.

B) No single set of attributes could enable an individual organism to cope with all of the conditions that it might face.

C) Natural selection will never result in individuals that will be perfectly adapted to their environments.

D) It is not possible for an individual to be perfectly adapted to its environment.

E) Ecologists once believed that natural selection would eventually result in individuals that will be perfectly adapted to their environments.

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13. Editorial: Almost every year the Smithfield River floods the coastal fishing community of Redhook, which annually spends $3 million on the cleanup.

Some residents have proposed damming the river, which would cost $5 million but would prevent the flooding. However, their position is misguided.

A) The Smithfield River should be dammed to prevent flooding.

B) For Redhook to build a dam on the Smithfield River would be a mistake.

C) The Smithfield River floods cost Redhook $3 million every year.

D) Nutrients from the Smithfield River are essential to the local fish population.

E) Damming the Smithfield River is not worth the high construction costs for such a project.

The editorial argues that damming the river would ultimately be a mistake due to its negative economic impact.

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A) Low-income families were less likely than high-income families to be affected by the rise in unemployment.

B) Increases in average family income generally coincide with increases in unemployment.

C) Average family income is typically unaffected by rises in unemployment.

D) The loss of low-income jobs did not cause an increase in the incomes of families that remained employed.

E) The rise in unemployment did not affect average family income in a positive manner.

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15. Chiu: The belief that a person is always morally blameworthy for feeling certain emotions, such as unjustifiable anger, jealousy, or resentment, is misguided. Individuals are responsible for only what is under their control, and whether one feels such an emotion is not always under one’s control.
Chiu’s conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?

A) If a person is morally blameworthy for something, then that person is responsible for it.

B) If an emotion is under a person’s control, then that person cannot hold others responsible for it.

C) Although a person may sometimes be unjustifiably angry, jealous, or resentful, there are occasions when these emotions are appropriate.

D) Individuals do not have control over their actions when they feel certain emotions.

E) The emotions for which a person is most commonly blamed are those that are under that person’s control.

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16. We already knew from thorough investigation that immediately prior to the accident, either the driver of the first vehicle changed lanes without signaling or the driver of the second vehicle was driving with excessive speed. Either of these actions would make a driver liable for the resulting accident. But further evidence has proved that the first vehicle’s turn signal was not on, though the driver of that vehicle admits to having changed lanes. So the driver of the second vehicle is not liable for the accident.
Which one of the following would be most important to know in evaluating the conclusion drawn above?

A) Whether the driver of the first vehicle was a reliable witness.

B) Whether the second vehicle was being driven at excessive speed.

C) Whether the driver of the first vehicle knew that the turn signal was not on.

D) Whether the driver of the second vehicle would have seen the turn signal flashing had it been on.

E) Whether any other vehicles were involved in the accident.

Knowing if the second vehicle was driving at excessive speed would affect the evaluation of liability.

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17. Geneticist: Genes, like viruses, have a strong tendency to self-replicate; this has led some biologists to call genes “selfish.” This term is, in this instance, intended to be defined behaviorally: it describes what genes do without ascribing intentions to them. But even given that genes are ascribed no intentions, the label “selfish” as applied to genes is a misnomer. Selfishness only concerns bringing about the best conditions for oneself; creating replicas of oneself is not selfish.
Which one of the following, if assumed, allows the geneticist’s conclusion to be properly drawn?

A) Creating replicas of oneself does not help bring about the best conditions for oneself.

B) To ignore the fact that self-replication is not limited to genes is to misunderstand genetic behavior.

C) The behavioral definition of “selfish” is incompatible with its everyday definition.

D) Bringing about the best conditions for oneself is less important than doing this for others.

E) Biologists have insufficient evidence about genetic behavior to determine whether it is best described as selfish.

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18. Advertisement: Seventy-five percent of dermatologists surveyed prefer Dermactin to all other brands of skin cream. Why? We consulted dermatologists during the development of Dermactin to ensure that you have the best skin cream on the market. So if you need a skin cream, use Dermactin.
The reasoning in the advertisement is questionable because the advertisement

A) Overlooks the possibility that other types of doctors have cause to use Dermactin.

B) Relies on an inappropriate appeal to the opinions of consumers.

C) Fails to state the number of dermatologists surveyed, which leaves open the possibility that the sample of doctors is too small to be reliable.

D) Overlooks the possibility that for some people, using no skin cream is preferable.

E) Presumes, without providing justification, that some dermatologists are less qualified than others.

The advertisement's conclusion relies on a small and potentially unreliable sample size, which might not represent the larger dermatologist population.

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19. We can now dismiss the widely held suspicion that sugar consumption often exacerbates hyperactivity in children with attention deficit disorder. A scientific study of the effects of three common sugars—sucrose, fructose, and glucose—on children who have attention deficit disorder, with experimental groups each receiving a type of sugar in their diets and a control group receiving a sugar substitute instead of sugar, showed no statistically significant difference between the groups in thinking or behavior.
Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the argument above?

A) The consumption of some sugar substitutes exacerbates the symptoms of hyperactivity.

B) Some children believe that they can tell the difference between the taste of sugar and that of sugar substitutes.

C) The study included some observations of each group in contexts that generally tend to make children excited and active.

D) The consumption of sugar actually has a calming effect on some children.

E) Only one of the three types of sugar used in the study was ever widely suspected of exacerbating hyperactivity.

The argument's strength depends on all sugars being equally suspect, so showing that only one sugar is relevant weakens it.

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20. Some statisticians believe that the method called extreme value theory (EVT) is a powerful analytical tool. The curves generated by traditional statistical methods to analyze empirical data on human longevity predict that some humans would live beyond 130 years. According to the curves EVT generates, however, the limit on human life spans is probably between 113 and 124 years. To date, no one has lived beyond the upper limits indicated by EVT analysis.
Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the statements above?

A) EVT is, in general, a more reliable method for projecting future trends based on past observations than are traditional statistical methods.

B) EVT fits the data about the highest observed human life spans more closely than do traditional statistical methods.

C) Traditional statistical methods of empirical data analysis should eventually be replaced by some version of EVT.

D) Given the results generated by EVT, there is no point in conducting research aimed at greatly extending the upper limit on human life spans.

E) According to the findings derived through the use of EVT, it is physically impossible for any human being to live longer than 124 years.

The statement indicates that EVT better fits the data related to maximum human life span, without necessarily being superior in all applications.

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21. Philosopher: An action is morally good if it both achieves the agent’s intended goal and benefits someone other than the agent.
Which one of the following judgments most closely conforms to the principle cited by the philosopher?

C) Yolanda took her children to visit their grandfather because she wanted her children to enjoy their vacation and she knew they adored their grandfather. The grandfather and the children all enjoyed the visit. Though Yolanda greatly enjoyed the visit, her action was morally good.

D) Ellen worked overtime hoping to get a promotion. The extra money she earned allowed her family to take a longer vacation that year, but she failed to get the promotion. Nevertheless, Ellen’s action was morally good.

The principle states that a morally good action must both achieve the goal intended by the agent and benefit someone other than the agent.

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22. Industrial adviser: If two new processes under consideration are not substantially different in cost, then the less environmentally damaging process should be chosen. If, however, a company already employs an environmentally damaging process and retooling for a less damaging process would involve substantial cost, then that company should retool only if retooling is either legally required or likely to bring long-term savings substantially greater than the cost.
Which one of the following judgments conforms most closely to the principles described by the industrial adviser?

E) A company is considering changing its process for manufacturing shoelaces. The new process is cheaper and less environmentally damaging than the old. Both are legal. Changing processes would be costly, but the cost would be almost entirely recovered in long-term savings. The company should switch processes.

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